This article asks whether LLMs enable large-scale experiments on classic mechanisms of political persuasion and, specifically, whether personalizing a message or turning it into a conversation increases its effect relative to generic text. The empirical contribution is real but narrower than the theoretical reading suggested by the title. Two preregistered surveys show that several GPT-4-generated persuasive packages cause small immediate changes in political survey responses relative to board-game controls. The principal models reproduce exactly from public data. However, the design does not manipulate customization and interaction orthogonally, does not measure cognitive elaboration, omits one preregistered dependent variable and many robustness analyses, cannot regenerate treatments exactly, and releases personal data that conflict with the anonymity promise made to participants.
The authors ran two CloudResearch Connect experiments in May 2024, paid USD 3 and approved by the Brigham Young University IRB. Study 1 concerns US legal immigration and analyzes 1,862 attitude-change responses. Study 2 concerns regulation of social and political views in K-12 classrooms and analyzes 1,819. Each person first answers three seven-point policy items. The second item determines the counterattitudinal direction that the treatment will promote. Change is calculated from the mean of all three items and signed toward the assigned direction. Immigration had a programming error: every neutral respondent received the pro-increased-immigration direction. K-12 corrected this and randomly assigned neutral respondents to either direction.
There are six conditions. Two controls concern board games: a fixed text and a six-turn conversation. Generic persuasive text is newly generated for every respondent but receives no profile. Microtargeted text receives age, gender, race or ethnicity, marital status, religion, education, occupation, city, state, party, ideology, and pretreatment position, although it is told not to mention them explicitly. Interactive direct persuasion lasts six turns and also receives the profile and replies. Motivational interviewing does the same but asks the person to discover discrepancies without introducing new arguments. In practice its prompt adopts a campaign role, directs the model to change the voter's mind, and says to push harder if the person cannot identify advantages of the opposing position.
Outcomes are immediate self-reports. Besides attitude change, the survey asks hypothetical likelihood of voting for a candidate holding the promoted position, perceived persuasiveness, and four democratic-reciprocity items. There is no follow-up, real electoral behavior, or naturalistic exposure. The first immigration index item loads only 0.50 before and 0.48 after treatment, yet all three items receive equal weight. Controls are pooled because six t tests do not reject differences on the three published outcomes. That follows the preregistration, but failure to reject is not evidence that fixed reading and a six-turn conversation are equivalent.
The audit reproduces the primary OLS models. In immigration, relative to pooled controls, treatment-direction attitude change is 0.0595 for interactive direct, 0.0561 for generic, and 0.0461 for microtargeting, all significant; motivational interviewing is 0.0046, p=.749. Voting-intention coefficients for direct, generic, and microtargeted are 0.0645, 0.0745, and 0.0424; the last is p=.0487 and motivational interviewing is null. No strategy conventionally changes democratic reciprocity. These are shifts of a few percentage points of the scale, not large political conversions.
In K-12, all four packages change attitude: 0.0788 for direct interaction, 0.0575 for motivational interviewing, 0.0537 for generic, and 0.1006 for microtargeting. All four increase hypothetical voting intention, with coefficients from 0.0428 to 0.0859. On democratic reciprocity only the two interactive conditions change the outcome: 0.0418 for direct and 0.0418 for motivational interviewing; generic is null and microtargeting is p=.064. The data support immediate counterattitudinal movement, while effects on tolerance toward opponents are weak and inconsistent.
The conclusion that customization and interaction add little beyond generic text requires caution. Conditions do not form a 2×2 factorial. Generic has neither profile nor interaction; microtargeting adds a profile; direct simultaneously adds profile, conversation, more text, more time, and adaptive replies; motivational interviewing retains profile and interaction while changing strategy and content. Direct persuasion is already customized. Comparing it with generic changes several features at once. Comparing it with microtargeting approximates an interaction contrast but also changes turns, length, and dynamics. There is no manipulation check of perceived customization, elaboration, attention, motivation, or ability. Conversation is used as a proxy for elaboration without demonstrating the mechanism. Similar effects can mean a small increment, a weak or confounded manipulation, or differences inside uncertainty; they do not broadly refute the theories.
Prompt selection adds another limitation. The team tested roughly 110 templates and then around 30 variants. It chose the template maximizing variation and mutual information between profiles and embedded texts, assuming more differentiated messages would be more targeted and persuasive. The supplement acknowledges that this proxy is not validated against actual persuasiveness. Candidate templates, GSS personas, scores, and selection code are absent. The study tests one implementation selected for text diversity, not the maximum potential or a validated definition of effective customization.
The preregistrations support the central models, but reporting is incomplete. Four dependent variables were registered and the article presents three. Self-reported persuasiveness was collected, but controls did not receive the item, so the registered treatment-control comparison cannot be run as written. The four persuasive strategies can still be compared. In immigration, generic, microtargeted, and direct means are 0.396, 0.404, and 0.402; motivational interviewing falls to 0.306 and differs from generic, p=.00034. In K-12, generic averages 0.330, direct 0.424, and microtargeting 0.391; direct and microtargeted exceed generic, p=.00018 and p=.015. These do not reverse attitude change, but show perceived format differences whose omission is unexplained.
The report also omits registered Holm corrections, attention-check restrictions, reCAPTCHA restrictions, 2.5th-percentile time exclusions, conversational compliance, demographic controls, confidence outcomes, moderation by political interest or AI concern, and the absolute-change analysis planned for Study 2 motivational interviewing. The supplement does disclose Study 2 expectation changes after Study 1 and acknowledges the neutral-assignment error, which is a strength. It should still separate confirmatory tests, deviations, and exploration and explain every unreported registered result.
Reproducibility is mixed. OSF provides preregistrations, prompts, exports, complete messages and conversations, R cleaning, and scripts. The audit reproduces coefficients, errors, p values, and sample sizes. Yet the model is identified only as GPT-4, without snapshot, temperature, seed, or retry policy, and generation code is absent. There is no R lockfile, Python requirements, container, or OSF license. Keyword analysis calls GPT-4o at temperature 1 and warns that it will not reproduce labels, fixes 50 clusters manually, and moves results through Google Sheets. The Figure 1 notebook requires CUDA, suppresses broad exceptions, and swaps plus/minus color lists for motivational interviewing. Some finishing used Illustrator. Replication is strong for OLS and weak for generation, prompt selection, and NLP.
The most serious issue is the public data release. Consent promises an anonymous survey, no ability to link responses back to people, and publication of anonymous data. The immigration CSV nevertheless retains 1,932 IP addresses, 1,781 coordinate pairs, 1,932 ResponseIds, and 1,928 participantIds; K-12 retains 1,875 IPs, 1,810 coordinate pairs, 1,875 ResponseIds, and 1,853 participantIds. The same rows include timestamps, city, state, age, gender, race or ethnicity, religion, marital status, income, education, party, ideology, free-text occupation, and full conversation content. This audit reproduces no personal values. The combination is not anonymous and creates material reidentification risk. Files should be removed or restricted immediately, reported to the responsible institutional or IRB function, and replaced with genuinely de-identified analytic data.
The defensible contribution is that a 2024 GPT-4 implementation enabled scalable political-message experiments and caused small immediate shifts relative to nonpolitical controls. It does not establish that microtargeting is useless, that conversation failed to produce elaboration, that broad theories need replacement, or that effects persist, alter real votes, or generalize to other topics, countries, models, or settings. A reference entry should foreground the reproduced effects, nonfactorial design, omitted outcome, generation limits, and critical personal-data exposure.